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(ii) BC lead

[edit]

Bahamian Creole English is the name given to the more basilectal varieties of Bahamian Dialect,[1] the post-creole continuum spoken in the Bahamas.

Early research into Bahamian Dialect assumed the "language" was race-based (Afro-Bahamian) and monolithic, however, subsequent research has found "four distinct groups of speakers [of Bahamian Dialect]: basilectal, mid-mesolectal, upper-mesolectal, and acrolectal."[2] Both the basilectal and mesolectal varieties are referred to as Bahamian Dialect[1] but only the basilectal variety constitutes Bahamian Creole English.[1]

Further research has revealed that Bahamian dialect tends to be more creolised in the southeast Bahamas and more acrolectal in the northern Bahamas with all varieties found in New Providence and the capital, Nassau.[3]

Bahamian Creole English shares similar features with other English-based creoles, such as those of Jamaica, Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago, Turks and Caicos, Saint Lucia, Grenada, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Guyana, and the Virgin Islands. There is also a very significant link between Bahamian and the Gullah language of South Carolina, as many Bahamians are descendants of enslaved African peoples brought to the islands from the Gullah region after the American Revolution.[4]

(i) Original pages to be combined:

[edit]

Bahamian English is the name given to the of varieties of the English language spoken and written the Bahamas.

Bahamian Dialect

[edit]

See further, Bahamian dialect

Bahamian Dialect is the primary oral, and first language, of the majority of the population.[5][6]

The oral language spoken by most Bahamian is Bahamian Dialect. Bahamian Dialect itself differs from speaker to speaker and by region and socioeconomic markers. Some Bahamians also speak near standard English which differs in its phonology and pronunciation, and the extent to which incorporates words and phrases from Bahamian Dialect depending on the person and the context.

Dialect v Creole

[edit]

The debate as to whether Bahamian Dialect is a dialect or creole is a fairly recent one. As Bahamian Dialect was for a long time considered to be a simple variety of English, very research was carried out on it compared to other Caribbean English varieties.[7]

Linguists and academics now maintain that what is commonly referred to in the Bahamas as Bahamian Dialect is a continuum[8] ranging from an English dialect on one end to an English creole on the other end, with regional and sociocultural markers and differentiations along the spectrum. Childs and Wolfram note that "few Caribbean varieties have such a full range of potential English input dialects" as Bahamian English.[9]

McPhee notes that what Bahamians refer to as Bahamian dialect, academics refer to as a creole,[7][10]: 18  However, Oebring notes that research into educated (or acrolectal) varieties of Caribbean English (or varieties that differ little from English) is still lacking when compared with basilectal varieties that differ significantly.[10]: 18 

Bahamian English
RegionThe Bahamas
Early forms
Language codes
ISO 639-3–
Glottologbaha1263
IETFen-BS
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

Lead 1

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Part of a series on the
English language
Features
Societal aspects
Dialects (full list)

Bahamian English is English spoken in The Bahamas and by the Bahamian people. The standard for official use and education is largely British-based with regard to spelling, vocabulary, and pronunciation.[11] However, Bahamian English also contains a unique pronunciation system and certain vocabulary, along a scale with the local Bahamian (Creole) dialect. Moreover, perceptions of a standard are more recently changing toward American English and Canadian English; in particular, 21st-century news-industry and younger Bahamian speakers are often more influenced in their pronunciations by General American English, Standard Canadian English or sometimes even African-American Vernacular English.[11]

Lead 2

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Bahamian Dialect, or simply Bahamian, is an English-based creole language spoken by both Black and White Bahamians, sometimes in slightly different forms. In comparison to many of the English-based dialects of the Caribbean, it suffers from limited research, possibly because it has long been assumed that this language is simply a variety of English. However, socio-historical and linguistic research shows that this is not the case and it is, in fact, a creole language,[12] related to but distinct from English as spoken in The Bahamas.

The Bahamian dialect tends to be more prevalent in certain areas of The Bahamas. Islands that were settled earlier or that have a historically large Black Bahamian population have a greater concentration of individuals exhibiting creolized speech; the dialect is most prevalent in urban areas.[13] Individual speakers have command of lesser and greater dialect forms.

Bahamian dialect shares similar features with other English-based creoles, such as those of Jamaica, Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago, Turks and Caicos, Saint Lucia, Grenada, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Guyana, and the Virgin Islands. There is also a very significant link between Bahamian and the Gullah language of South Carolina, as many Bahamians are descendants of enslaved African peoples brought to the islands from the Gullah region after the American Revolution.[14]

Grammar 1

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Pronouns in Bahamian dialect are generally the same as in Standard English. However, the second person plural can take one of three forms:

  • yinna,
  • y'all or
  • all a ya

Possessive pronouns in Bahamianese often differ from Standard English with:

  • your becoming ya
  • his or hers becoming he or she

and

  • their becoming dey.

For example, das ya book? means 'is that your book?'

In addition, the possessive pronouns differ from Standard English:[citation needed]

English Bahamian
mine mines
yours yawnz (s.) or yawz (s.)
yinnas (pl.)
his he own
hers har own
ours ah own
theirs dey own/ders

When describing actions done alone or by a single group, only.. one is used, as in only me one sing ('I'm the only one who sang') and only Mary one gern Nassau ('Mary is the only one who is going to Nassau')

Verbs

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Verb usage in the Bahamian dialect differs significantly from that of Standard English. There is also variation amongst speakers. For example, the word go:

1) I'm going to Freeport:

  • I goin ta Freeport
  • I gern ta Freeport
  • I gun go Freeport

2) I am going to cook

  • I ga cook
  • I gern cook
  • I gern go cook

Similarly, verb "to do" has numerous variations depending on tense and context:

  • I does eat conch erry day ('I eat conch every day')
  • Wa you does do? ('what kind of work do you do?')
  • "He gone dat way" (used while pointing in a direction, means that is where the person went).

In the present tense, the verb "to be" is usually conjugated "is" regardless of the grammatical person:

  • I am – I is or "Ise” (pronounced "eyes")
  • You are – You is or "You's", pronounced "use"
  • We are – We is or "We's", pronounced "weez"
  • They are – Dey is or "Dey's"

The negative form of "to be" usually takes the form "een" I een gern ('I am not goin')

While context is often used to indicate tense (e.g. I drink plenny rum las night = 'I drank a lot of rum last night'), the past tense can also be formed by combining "did", "done", "gone", or "been" with the verb:

  • She tell him already ('she already told him')
  • I dun (done) tell you
  • He tell her she was fat ('he told her she was fat')
  • Why you do dat? ('why did you do that?')
  • I bin (been) Loutra last week ('I went to Eleuthera last week')

Grammar 2

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The grammar is not so different from the US ( as per Zaka ).

When emphasising a word in Bahamian English, it is common to repeat it. (the car was going fast → the car was going fast fast)

The past participle is not indicated using the verb "have" in Bahamian English. Instead, it is indicated with the verb "be", especially among white speakers. (I have already washed the clothes → I am already washed the clothes) It can also be omitted and replaced by "done", with the verb left in its present-tense form. (I done wash the clothes) This practice is common among both white and black speakers.[15]

For some speakers (particularly black speakers), the present progressive is written using the present participle preceded by "does be" (I does be washing the clothes). Among white speakers, it is more common to just use "be" when talking in the third person. (They be washing the clothes)[15]

The possessive indicator 's is often omitted.[15]

Questions retain the same syntax as statements; the subject and verb do not switch their positions. (What is she doing? → What she is doing?) Thus, the use of "ain't" is highly important to distinguish an interrogative sentence from a declarative sentence.[15]

Bahamian
Native toThe Bahamas
Native speakers
c. 250,000 (2013)[16]
English Creole
  • Atlantic
    • Eastern
      • Northern (Bahamian–Gullah)
        • Bahamian
Language codes
ISO 639-3bah
Glottologbaha1260
Linguasphere52-ABB-an–ao

Pronunciation 1

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Though there is variation between Black and White speakers, there is a tendency for speakers to drop /h/ or, in a hypercorrection, to add it to words without it so harm and arm are pronounced the same. The merger occurs most often in the speech of Abaco and north Eleuthera.[17]

Some speakers have merged /v/ and /w/ into a single phoneme and pronounce words with [v] or [w] depending on context (the latter appearing in word-initial position and the former appearing elsewhere).[18] Outside of White acrolectal speech, speakers have no dental fricatives and English cognate words are usually pronounced with [d] or [t] as in dis ('this') and tink ('think').[17] Other characteristics of Bahamian Creole in comparison to English include:[17]

  • Merger of the vowels of fair and fear into [ɛə]
  • Free variation of the "happy" vowel between [ɪ] and [i].
  • The vowel of first merges with that of fuss (into [ʌ]) among some and with the vowel of foist (into [ʌɪ]) in others.
  • As the creole is non-rhotic; /r/ is not pronounced unless it is before a vowel. For example, "Hard" turns in to "Haad" with the "a" being lengthed in the absence of the rhotic.
  • Final clusters are often simplified, especially when they share voicing (gold > gol, but not milk > *mil).
  • The pin–pen merger occurs.

Pronunciation 2

[edit]

The phonology of Bahamian English is believed to be derived from those of Bermudian English, Canadian English, Cockney English, RP, Scottish English, African-American Vernacular English, and Gullah.[19] The English accent of both Black and White Bahamians is traditionally non-rhotic,[20] due to being British-influenced, but often now rhotic among some younger speakers.[11]

Bahamian vowel phonetics are basically shared with both General American English and British Received Pronunciation, except the following may be distinct:[20][21]

Vowels
Wikipedia

diaphoneme

Bahamian

English

Example words
/æ/ [ä] bath, man, trap
/ɑː/ [ɑ] blah, father
/ɒ/ bother, lot, wasp
[ɑː] (lower class),

[ɔː] (higher class)

dog, loss, cloth
/ɔː/ bought, taught, saw
/aɪ/ [äː] (Black),

[äi] or [ʌɪ] (White)

ride, shine, try
[äi], [ʌɪ] (also White) bright, dice, pike
/aʊ/ [aː, ɑɔ] (Black),

[aɛ, aø] (White)

now, ouch, scout
/eɪ/ [eɪ > eː] lake, paid, rein
/ɔɪ/ [əi, ɔi] boy, choice, moist
/oʊ/ [ou > oː] (Black),

[ɵu] (White)

goat, oh, show
Vowels followed by /r/
/ɑːr/ [ɑ̈ː] barn, car, park
/ɪər/ [eᴈ] fear, peer, tier
/ɛər/ bare, bear, there
/ɜːr/ [ɜː], [əi] (also Black) burn, first, herd
/ɔːr/ [oᴈ] hoarse, horse, poor

There is little or no distinction between the [v] and [w] sounds in Bahamian English.[22] The contrast is often neutralised or merged into [v], [b] or [β], so village sounds like [wɪlɪdʒ], [vɪlɪdʒ] or [βɪlɪdʒ]. The final example is especially common among White speakers. This also happens in Vincentian, Bermudian and other Caribbean Englishes.

The cheer-chair merger of vowels is common, combining certain vowels before /r/.

Dental fricatives are usually changed to alveolar plosives (th-stopping):

  • Voiced th becomes /d/, e.g. "That" turns into "Dat"; "Those" into "Doze"; "There" into "Dere"; "They" into "Day".
  • Unvoiced th becomes /t/, e.g. "Thanks" turns into "Tanks"; "Throw" into "Trow"; "Three" into "Tree".

The sound /h/ is often inserted into words that are not spelled with the letter H, leaving "up" to be pronounced as [hʌp]. However, it is also frequently dropped from words that are spelled with an H, so "harm" is left to be pronounced as [ɑ̈ːm].[15][23]

The sibilant fricatives /z/ and /ʒ/ may be devoiced and pronounced as [s] and [ʃ] respectively.

Vocab 1

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Holm & Shilling (1982) features over 5,500 words and phrases not found in Standard English, with the authors attempting to link them to other English-based creoles, like Gullah.[13] Words may derive from English, as well as some African languages.

Examples

[edit]
  • asue: a cooperative savings system traced to a Yoruba custom of éèsú or èsúsú;[24] similar schemes are common in other Caribbean countries, e.g. the susu in Barbados.
  • benny: sesame seed, grown locally and used in the popular treat benny cake[25] found in various forms throughout the African Diaspora.
  • Conchy Joe or Conky Joe: a Bahamian descendant of loyalist immigrants.[26] They can be White or mixed White and Black. Not to be confused with White Bahamians who are White people born in The Bahamas.
  • Jook: to stab or poke, possibly from the West African word of the same meaning.[27] This word is found in many Caribbean creole languages.
  • Obeah: Witchcraft.[26]

Vocabulary 2

[edit]

Much of Bahamian terminology is derived from British English, West African languages, and Spanish, due to the country's colonial past.[28] Bahamian English has also come under the influence of American English due to a boost in tourism after the country gained independence, along with the resulting diffusion of American media.[15]

Some distinctive Bahamianisms include:

  • Advantage (verb) - to cheat.[15]
  • Aligned patch reefs (noun) - a line of reef.[29]
  • Bey – supposed to mean "boy", but can also refer to any person.[30] It can also be used as an imperative command to make somebody pay attention to a point.[31]
  • Biggety (adjective) - bold or loud.[32] [dead link]
  • Big-up (adjective) - pregnant.[33]
  • Boom-boom (noun) - buttocks.[33]
  • Boonggy (noun) - the hindquarters area.[33] As a verb, it refers to anal penetration.[34]
  • Bread (noun) - a woman's genitals. Can also be expressed with "crabby".[34]
  • Bubby (adjective) - big and round (of a person's lips).[34] (Not to be confused with "bubbie", which refers to a woman's breasts.[28])
  • Broughtupcy (noun) – the way that someone is raised.[31] "No broughtupcy" can also be used as an adjective, meaning "bad-mannered".[32]
  • Buck up (verb) - to run into something or someone.[32]
  • Bush crack man gone - a proverb meaning to run when trouble comes.[35]
  • Capoonka (adjective) - confused.[15]
  • Chirren (noun) - children.[31]
  • Conchy Joe (noun) - can refer to either a white native/longtime resident of the Bahamas or a cocktail.[30]
  • Coral pinnacle (noun) - can refer to a coral stack or a coral head.[29]
  • Cut eye (verb) - to give somebody a dirty look.[32]
  • Cut one's hip (verb) - to give somebody a beating. The noun "cut-hip" refers to a beating that is given in this act.[35]
  • Doggy (noun) - a man's genitals.[34]
  • Erl (noun) - oil. (Can refer to both cooking oil and motor oil.)
  • Ey (particle) - used at the end of a yes/no question when seeking information.[33]
  • Frowsy (adjective) - foul-smelling, often in an extreme sense.[28]
  • Gat - got.[31]
  • Gattee - a contraction of "got to".[32]
  • Grabalishous (adjective) - greedy.[32]
  • Grin'in' (noun) - the act of having sex. Can also be expressed with "juicing".[34]
  • Gumma - a contraction of "give me".[32]
  • Gun casin - describes the curvature of a woman's upper thigh area.[34]
  • Gal (noun) – girl.[31]
  • Hereditaments (noun) - property (of land).[36]
  • Hey (particle) - used at the end of a yes/no question when seeking agreement.[33]
  • I is – I am.[31]
  • Islandish (adjective) - unsophisticated.[15]
  • Jam up (adjective) - crowded.[30]
  • Jitney (noun) - a city bus.[30]
  • Jook (verb) - to poke or stab.[32]
  • Jungaless (noun) - a loud, uncouth and fiesty woman.[28]
  • Kapunkle up (adjective) - drunk (on alcohol).[32]
  • Leg short - an idiom used when somebody arrives too late.[30]
  • Low fence (noun) - a person who is a pushover or can be taken advantage of.[30]
  • Mango skin - a light-skinned person.[28]
  • Mash up (verb) - to break or destroy something.[30]
  • Mound reef (noun) - a boiler (of a coral reef), especially one set in deeper open water.[29]
  • Muddo or muddasick[32] (interjection) – an expression used to represent excitement, surprise, or shock.[31]
  • Mussy[32] - a contraction of "must be", often used to mean only the former.
  • Nanny (noun) - fecal matter or excretory waste.[33]
  • Peasyhead - addresses the fact that a person's hair has tight curls at the nape of their head.[28]
  • Pickney (noun) - a small child.[32]
  • Potcake (noun) - a dog of multiple breeds.[30]
  • Reef barrier (noun) - the main reef of a coral reef system.[29]
  • Reef platform (noun) - the top of a coral reef, especially a flat one.[29]
  • Root title (noun) - title history (of an estate).[36]
  • Sea whip (noun) - an alcyonarian.[29]
  • Seaward (of a reef barrier) (noun) - the back of a coral reef.[29]
  • Shallow reef (noun) - a bright reef.[29]
  • Show sef (verb) - to be a show-off.[33]
  • Sip sip (noun) - gossip.[32]
  • Sky juice (noun) - a beverage made from gin and coconut water.[32]
  • Slam bam (noun) - a sausage and bread sandwich.
  • Sometimey (adjective) - moody.[35]
  • Spilligate - used when a person goes out on the town.[30]
  • Stench (verb) - to be stubborn.[33]
  • Sweetheartin' (verb) - to cheat on one's spouse.[32]
  • Switcha (noun) - lemonade.[30]
  • Tarreckly (adverb) - directly or soon.[33]
  • Tief (verb) - thief.[31]
  • Tingsy (adjective) - materialistic.[31]
  • Tingum - used to refer to a person or thing with a name that cannot be easily recalled by the speaker.[31] Can also be represented with "t'ing".[33]
  • Totin' news (verb) - to spread gossip.[33]
  • Trapsy (adjective) - untrustworthy.[31]
  • Wammy (noun) - a derogatory term for HIV/AIDS.[34]
  • Wybe (noun) - a problem or bad situation. The verb "to wybe" means to have an argument or disagreement.[30]
  • Yinna (pronoun) - you (plural).[31]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c Donnelly, Janet L. (1997). "Basilectal Features of Bahamian Creole English". International Journal of Bahamian Studies. 9: 17–34. doi:10.15362/ijbs.v9i0.28. ISSN 2220-5772. Within The Bahamas there exists a language continuum ranging from the basilectal through mesolectal to acrolectal, each variety impacting on the others. A good many Bahamians speak a more mesolectal variety (which is still referred to as Bahamian dialect) but there remain a large number of basilectal speakers. The basilect is quite distinct from the acrolect and contains most of the same features that are attributed to many of the other English-based creoles of the Caribbean and its environs.
  2. ^ Schreier, Daniel; Trudgill, Peter; Schneider, Edgar W.; Williams, Jeffrey P. (2010-03-04). The Lesser-Known Varieties of English: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-48741-2. The assumption that Afro-Bahamian English is monolithic is, in fact, false, but continues to this day despite the fact that Albury (1981), in a Master's thesis, found variation of simple past marking within Afro-Bahamian, differentiating four distinct groups of speakers: basilectal, mid-mesolectal, upper-mesolectal, and acrolectal. The assumption that Afro-Bahamian is monolithic is further complicated by the fact that there are few clear ethnic boundaries in the Bahamas
  3. ^ Lawlor, Florence Anne (1996). "Bahamian English or Bahamian Creole? A Socio-Historical Investigation". College Forum. 8. The College of The Bahamas. doi:10.15362/ijbs.v8i0.21.
  4. ^ Holm, John (1983). "On the Relationship of Gullah and Bahamian". American Speech. 58 (4): 303–318. doi:10.2307/455145. ISSN 0003-1283. JSTOR 455145.
  5. ^ Schreier, Daniel; Trudgill, Peter; Schneider, Edgar W.; Williams, Jeffrey P. (2010-03-04). The Lesser-Known Varieties of English: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press. pp. 160–161. ISBN 978-1-139-48741-2. the style-shifting abilities of residents make it difficult to estimate the numbers of speakers who speak any Bahamian dialect; however, drawing solely from demographic data, about five in six Bahamian residents... where much of the creole Bahamian basilect can be heard (Hackert 2004). The remaining approximately 50,000 residents are spread throughout the rest of the islands and vary considerably in their speech patterns.
  6. ^ Hackett, Stephanie (2013). "Bahamian Creole". In Michaelis, Susanne Maria; Maurer, Philippe; Haspelmath, Martin; Huber, Magnus (eds.). The Survey of Pidgin and Creole Languages: Volume 1. Oxford University Press. pp. 127–137. spoken by c. 250,000 in the Commonwealth of the Bahamas
  7. ^ a b McPhee, Helean (2006). "Is Bahamian Dialect a Creole?". www.cavehill.uwi.edu. Archived from the original on 2011-06-25. Retrieved 2025-08-31. In comparison to many of the English-based creoles of the Caribbean region, limited research has been conducted on what Bahamians commonly refer to as "Bahamian Dialect." This lack of research on "Bahamian Dialect" is perhaps due to the fact that for many years, Bahamians have assumed that this language is simply a variety of English.
  8. ^ Schreier, Daniel; Trudgill, Peter; Schneider, Edgar W.; Williams, Jeffrey P. (2010-03-04). The Lesser-Known Varieties of English: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-48741-2. The assumption that Afro-Bahamian English is monolithic is, in fact, false, but continues to this day despite the fact that Albury (1981), in a Master's thesis, found variation of simple past marking within Afro-Bahamian, differentiating four distinct groups of speakers: basilectal, mid-mesolectal, upper-mesolectal, and acrolectal. The assumption that Afro-Bahamian is monolithic is further complicated by the fact that there are few clear ethnic boundaries in the Bahamas
  9. ^ Childs, Becky; Wolfram, Walt (2008). "Bahamian English Phonology". Varieties of English: The Americas and the Caribbean. Vol. 2 (PDF). De Gruyter Mouton. p. 428. ISBN 9783110208405.
  10. ^ a b Oenbring, Raymond (November 2015). "Tracing the Historical Development of Standard Bahamian English: A First Approach" (PDF). Journal of The Bahamas Historical Society: 18–27. Despite that fact most Bahamians refer to their mother tongue as Bahamian Dialect, linguists prefer to use the term Bahamian Creole English
  11. ^ a b c Ammon, Ulrich; Dittmar, Norbert; Mattheier, Klaus J. (2006). Sociolinguistics: An International Handbook of the Science of Language and Society. Walter de Gruyter. p. 2069. ISBN 978-3-11-018418-1. British-based standard Bahamian English is the official language [...] Although standard Bahamian is non-rhotic, many Bahamians view r-full American pronunciations as "correct" and try to imitate them, even to the extent of introducing a hypercorrect /r/ in [...] Baharmas.
  12. ^ McPhee, Helen. "Is Bahamian Dialect a Jargon? Archived June 25, 2011, at the Wayback Machine"
  13. ^ a b Reaser (2010:161)
  14. ^ Holm, John (1983). "On the Relationship of Gullah and Bahamian". American Speech. 58 (4): 303–318. doi:10.2307/455145. ISSN 0003-1283. JSTOR 455145.
  15. ^ a b c d e f g h i "Linguistic Features".
  16. ^ Hackert, Stephanie (2013). "Survey chapter: Bahamian Creole". The Atlas of Pidgin and Creole Language Structures.
  17. ^ a b c Holm & Shilling (1982:viii)
  18. ^ Wells (1982:589) harvcoltxt error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFWells1982 (help)
  19. ^ Reaser, Jeffrey; Torbert, Benjamin (2008-12-19). Bahamian English: morphology and syntax. De Gruyter Mouton. doi:10.1515/9783110197181-101. ISBN 978-3-11-019718-1.
  20. ^ a b Wells, J. C. (1982). Accents of English. Vol. 3: Beyond the British Isles. Cambridge U. Press. pp. 565–570, 589–590. ISBN 978-0-521-28541-4.
  21. ^ Childs, Becky; Wolfram, Walt (2004). "Bahamian English: Phonology". In: A handbook of varieties of English, 1. pp. 438-441.
  22. ^ Childs, Becky; Wolfram, Walt (2008). "Bahamian English: phonology". In Schneider, Edgar W. (ed.). Varieties of English. Vol. 2: The Americas and the Caribbean. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 239–255.
  23. ^ Aceto, Michael (2020-12-31), "Eastern Caribbean English-derived language varieties: phonology", A Handbook of Varieties of English, De Gruyter, pp. 481–500 (486), doi:10.1515/9783110197181-033, ISBN 978-3-11-019718-1, retrieved 2024-10-06
  24. ^ Holm & Shilling (1982:5–6)
  25. ^ Holm & Shilling (1982:16)
  26. ^ a b Holm & Shilling (1982:49)
  27. ^ Holm & Shilling (1982:115)
  28. ^ a b c d e f Cite error: The named reference 16 Bahamian Words You Need to Know was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  29. ^ a b c d e f g h Storr, John Frederick (1964). Ecology and Oceanography of the Coral-Reef Tract, Abaco Island, Bahamas. Geological Society of America. ISBN 978-0-8137-2079-1. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
  30. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k "15 Phrases to Know Before Visiting the Bahamas". 22 December 2017.
  31. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l "Bahamian Slang | This Bahamian Gyal". 27 May 2018.
  32. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o "Bahamas Slang Bahamian Speak Talk". Archived from the original on July 6, 2012.
  33. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k "Bahamas words and phrases 2022 | 15 fun sayings and quotes". 30 June 2018.
  34. ^ a b c d e f g "Talkin Sex Stuff". 21 March 2013.
  35. ^ a b c "Ting's to Say".
  36. ^ a b How to Buy and Sell Real Estate in the Bahamas: Insider's Guide. Matthew Simon. 12 March 2012. ISBN 9781438250519.

Bibliography

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  • Holm, John A.; Shilling, Alison Watt (1982), Dictionary of Bahamian English, Cold Spring, New York: Lexik House, ISBN 978-0-936368-03-0
  • Reaser, Jeffrey (2010), "Bahamian English", in Schreier, Daniel; Trudgill, Peter; Schneider, Edgar W.; Williams, Jeffrey (eds.), The Lesser Known Varieties of English: An Introduction, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 158–170
  • Wells, John Christopher (1982), Accents of English: Beyond the British Isles, vol. 3, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
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See also

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