Gender bias

Gendered associations of pink and blue in children.

Gender bias is the tendency to prefer one gender over another. It is a form of unconscious bias, or implicit bias, which occurs when one individual unconsciously attributes certain attitudes and stereotypes to another person or group of people.

Distinctions from sexism

Gender bias and sexism are related but distinct concepts. Sexism is prejudice or discrimination based on sex, often favoring one sex over another. Gender bias is a broader term referring to any bias based on gender. It can affect anyone, including men, women, and those who don't conform to traditional gender norms. While sexism often involves overt discrimination, gender bias can be subtle and unconscious, manifesting as stereotypes, preferences, and unequal treatment.

The surgeon riddle

A father and son are in a horrible car crash that kills the dad. The son is rushed to the hospital; just as he's about to go under the knife, the surgeon says, "I can’t operate—that boy is my son!"

When faced with the surgeon riddle, many people unconsciously assume the surgeon is male, even if they consciously hold egalitarian views; this illustrates implicit gender bias. This is distinct from explicit gender bias, which manifests when individuals consciously express prejudiced beliefs, such as preferring male doctors or openly endorsing sexism.

Gender bias in textbooks

Gender representation in textbooks

Large-scale and country-specific studies have identified consistent patterns of gender imbalance in school textbooks. A cross-national automated analysis of 1,255 textbooks from 34 countries found that male-related words appeared more than twice as often as female-related words (178,142 vs. 82,113). After adjustments for book length, grade, and subject, the countries with the lowest levels of female representation included Afghanistan, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and South Sudan, where fewer than one in three gendered terms referred to women or girls. The same study reported substantial variation across subjects. Female representation was lowest in religious studies and the humanities, while mathematics and science—fields associated with higher labor-market returns—also showed less than equal representation. Home economics contained the highest proportion of female references.

Research from individual countries shows similar patterns. A study of Iranian English-language textbooks (Prospect 1–3) found that male characters appeared more frequently than female characters, with ratios of 1.43:1 and 1.26:1 in the first and third volumes, respectively. Masculine pronouns similarly outnumbered feminine pronouns. Of 341 images depicting humans, 66.6% showed males only and 15% showed females only. Female characters were typically confined to school-based or domestic roles, whereas male characters were depicted across a wide range of social, professional, and leisure contexts.

Studies from China report comparable gender imbalances. An analysis of the Success with English primary school textbook series used in Guangzhou found that male characters made up 60.93% of all illustrated figures, while females accounted for 39.07%. Of 159 named characters mentioned in the texts, 61.64% were male. Male dominance was reinforced by recurring story sections centered on two male student characters, who appeared in every unit. Famous individuals referenced in the series were also overwhelmingly male and drawn from diverse professions, whereas the few notable women mentioned were concentrated in literature, politics, and physics.

Together, these studies indicate that gender imbalance, the concentration of women in stereotypical roles, and limited depictions of women's professional and leisure activities remain common features of instructional materials across diverse educational systems.

Gender stereotypical portrayals

Studies consistently show that school textbooks reproduce traditional gender stereotypes through patterns of language use, occupational roles, and depictions of activities. A cross-national computational analysis of 1,255 textbooks found that adjectives associated with women tended to emphasize appearance or domesticity—such as “beautiful,” “quiet,” or “married”—while male-associated adjectives included “powerful,” “rich,” and “wise.” Verbs collocating with female terms often referred to domestic labor (e.g., “cook,” “bake”), whereas male terms appeared with verbs associated with authority or action (e.g., “rule,” “guide,” “order”). Occupation terms also displayed a strong gender skew: of the 20 most frequently used job titles, all but “domestic help” and “nurse” co-occurred more often with male nouns or pronouns.

Analysis of the Iranian Prospect textbook series similarly demonstrates gender-differentiated language patterns. Women were predominantly depicted as teachers, nurses, or housewives, whereas men appeared across a broad spectrum of skilled and high-status professions, including mechanics, doctors, soldiers, and pilots. Concordance analysis of pronouns showed that "he" commonly collocated with verbs related to work and public activities, while "she" collocated with domestic verbs such as “cook,” reflecting a deeply rooted division of gendered labor.

Research in China has documented parallel patterns across mathematics, language, and social studies materials. In elementary mathematics textbooks, males comprised nearly two-thirds of all depicted characters, and were shown performing 74% of stimulating or active tasks. Females, by contrast, were disproportionately represented in passive roles, neatness, and cooperation, reinforcing highly traditional expectations of behavior. In social studies textbooks, occupational stereotypes were extreme: 100% of scientists and soldiers were male, while 100% of teachers and most service workers were female, reproducing a strict division between public and private spheres.

Studies from Belgium show both the persistence and evolution of gender stereotypes. Male characters were disproportionately depicted as unruly, disruptive, or engaging in negative behaviors, reinforcing cultural narratives about boys’ lack of discipline. Scholars note that such portrayals may influence teachers’ perceptions of male students and contribute to gendered differences in academic engagement. Although newer textbooks in Flanders attempt to incorporate women into STEM, sports, health, and artistic fields, women remain largely absent from physically demanding occupations, entrepreneurial careers, and political roles. Domestic labor is still framed as a primarily feminine responsibility.

Textbook analyses in Vietnam likewise reveal ongoing gendered asymmetries. Across four English textbooks for lower secondary grades, boys and men occupy more verbal space, more expert roles, and more agentive character positions. Female characters appear less frequently, are more often linked to domestic responsibilities, and are depicted as having fewer opportunities and narrower aspirations. Girls are shown as less confident, less independent, and more limited in their choices, while mothers—not fathers—bear nearly all household and caregiving roles.

Across national contexts, these findings indicate that stereotypical portrayals of work, family life, personal traits, and agency remain deeply embedded in instructional materials, even in contexts where textbook reforms have aimed to promote gender equality.

Gender bias in artificial intelligence

Gender bias in artificial intelligence refers to the circumstances in which AI systems reflect and perpetuate existing societal biases, leading to unfair or discriminatory results. These biases can manifest in various ways.

Gender bias in colors

Gender bias can manifest as a type of color bias that reinforces societal association of certain colors with specific genders, particularly pink with girls and blue with boys, which can perpetuate harmful stereotypes. This bias is a relatively modern construct.