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Kandahar Province

Coordinates: 31°00′N 65°30′E / 31.0°N 65.5°E / 31.0; 65.5
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Kandahar
د کندهار ولايت (Pashto)
ولایت قندهار (Dari)
Province
Map of Afghanistan with Kandahar highlighted
Map of Afghanistan with Kandahar highlighted
Coordinates (Capital): 31°00′N 65°30′E / 31.0°N 65.5°E / 31.0; 65.5
Country Afghanistan
CapitalKandahar
Government
 • GovernorMullah Shirin Akhund[1]
Area
[2]
 • Total
54,844 km2 (21,175 sq mi)
Population
 (2023)[3]
 • Total
c. 1.5 million
 • Density27.4/km2 (71/sq mi)
DemonymKandahari
Time zoneUTC+4:30 (Afghanistan Time)
Postal code
38xx
Area codeAF-KAN
Main languagesPashto
Websitehttps://kandahar.gov.af/

Kandahar (Pashto: د کندهار ولايت, romanized: Da Kandahār Wilāyat and Dari: ولایت قندهار, romanized: Wilāyat-e Qandahār) is one of the southern provinces of Afghanistan and is widely regarded as one of the country's most historically influential and politically significant regions. It borders Helmand to the west, Uruzgan to the north, Zabul to the east, and the Balochistan province of Pakistan to the south. The provincial capital is the city of Kandahar, which functions as the main administrative, economic, and cultural center of southern Afghanistan called Loy Kandahar.

Covering an area of approximately 54,000 square kilometers and having an estimated population of about 1.5 million people, Kandahar is characterized by its arid climate, desert landscapes, and fertile agricultural zones along the Arghandab River. The province plays a central role in Afghanistan's agricultural economy, particularly in the production of pomegranates, grapes, wheat, and other cash crops. Kandahar also contains numerous archaeological and historical sites, reflecting its long and continuous human habitation.

Historically, Kandahar has served as a crucial gateway between South Asia, the Iranian Plateau, and Central Asia. The region was part of ancient Arachosia and later became an important center under Achaemenid, Hellenistic, Kushan, and Islamic rule. In the modern era, Kandahar gained national prominence as the birthplace of Ahmad Shah Durrani, the founder of the modern Afghan state in the 18th century, establishing the province as the symbolic heartland of Afghan statehood and Pashtun political power.

Today, Kandahar remains one of the most strategically important provinces of Afghanistan due to its geographic position, economic role, and political influence, with the city of Kandahar de facto serving as the seat of national power since 2021 due to the permanent presence of the Taliban's supreme leadership in the city. While the province continues to face significant challenges related to security, governance, and infrastructure development, it retains a strong regional identity rooted in its historical legacy, tribal traditions, and agricultural productivity.

Etymology

[edit]

There is long-standing scholarly speculation surrounding the origin of the name Kandahar. One theory traces the name to the Kandhāra, believed to be a linguistically altered form of Gandhāra (Sanskrit: कंधार), a historically significant region referenced as early as 2000–1700 BCE.[4] This interpretation suggests a deep pre-Hellenistic linguistic continuity in the broader region of southern Afghanistan.

The more widely accepted explanation, however, links the name directly to Alexander the Great. Kandahar is believed to have originated as one of the many cities named after the Hellenistic conqueror across his former Achaemenid domains, with its ancient name being Alexandria Arachosia (Ancient Greek: Ἀλεξάνδρεια Ἀραχωσία). The modern form Kandahar (Pashto: کندهار) is thought to derive from the adaptation of Iskandariya (Arabic: الإسكندرية), itself based on Alexándreia (Ancient Greek: Ἀλεξάνδρεια).[5] Archaeological evidence supports this Hellenistic connection. A temple dedicated to the deified Alexander has been identified in the old citadel, along with a significant bilingual inscription in Greek and Aramaic issued by the Mauryan emperor Ashoka, who ruled a few decades after Alexander's campaigns.[6]

History

[edit]
Further information: History of Afghanistan

Antiquity

[edit]
Bilingual Greek and Aramaic inscriptions by king Ashoka at modern-day Old Kandahar from the 3rd century BC

Kandahar and its surrounding region have been inhabited for more than 7,000 years, making it one of the oldest continuously settled areas in the world.[7] Archaeological excavations at populated places near modern Kandahar reveal early farming villages dating to approximately 5000 BCE, featuring multiroomed mudbrick houses, pottery kilns, and evidence of organized agricultural production. Excavations at the nearby caves yielded Bronze Age artifacts, including copper and bronze tools, horse trappings, and stone seals, indicating early technological advancement and trade. Stylistically, these artifacts show cultural links with the Indus Valley civilization, the Iranian plateau, and Central Asia, suggesting Kandahar's integration into a wide prehistoric trade and cultural network.[7]

During antiquity, the region was known as Arachosia, strategically situated between South Asia, Central Asia, and the Iranian plateau. Its location along river valleys, such as the Arghandab, and early trade routes made it a coveted territory. Arachosia became a satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire, serving as a hub for administration, taxation, and military control in the eastern territories of the empire. In 330 BCE, Alexander the Great conquered Arachosia and founded Alexandria Arachosia, which functioned as both a military stronghold and a commercial center connecting Hellenistic, Persian, and Indian spheres. After Alexander's death, the city fell under the Seleucid Empire and later came under the Mauryan Empire, highlighting the spread of Buddhism and the region's integration into South Asian cultural networks. The geographic advantages, fertile land, and strategic position established Arachosia as a crucial nexus of commerce, culture, and military power in antiquity.[8]

Medieval times

[edit]
A miniature from Padshahnama depicting the surrender of the Shia Safavid at what is now Old Kandahar in 1638 to the Mughal army of Shah Jahan commanded by Kilij Khan

The medieval period in Kandahar saw successive waves of conquest, settlement, and cultural transformation. After the decline of Hellenistic and Mauryan influence, the region was ruled by local dynasties, most notably the Zunbils, who maintained semi-independent control until the 7th century CE. The arrival of Arab forces under the Umayyad Caliphate introduced Islam, though initial control was largely temporary. By the 9th century, the Saffarid dynasty consolidated Islamic authority in modern-day southern Afghanistan, while the eastern territories remained under the Hindushahis, a Hindu dynasty controlling parts of Gandhara.

In the 10th and 11th centuries, Kandahar became part of the Ghaznavid Empire under Mahmud of Ghazni, who implemented centralized administration, collected taxes, and expanded trade networks into northern India.[9] The Ghaznavids facilitated the spread of Islamic culture, architecture, and Persian administrative systems. They were succeeded by the Ghurids, who maintained Kandahar as a strategic military and administrative center.

The 13th century brought devastation during Mongol invasions under Genghis Khan, resulting in widespread destruction and population displacement. Reconstruction occurred under the Timurids, who strengthened fortifications, rebuilt urban infrastructure, and promoted trade, while delegating governance to family members such as Pir Muhammad ibn Jahangir in the late 14th and early 15th century. Kandahar's position as a crossroads for trade and military campaigns remained central to its identity during this period.

Early modern period

[edit]
Painting by Abdul Ghafoor Breshna depicting the 1747 coronation of Ahmad Shah Durrani, who is regarded as the founding father of Afghanistan (Father of the Nation).

From the 16th century onward, Kandahar was at the center of repeated conflicts between regional powers. The city was contested between the Mughal Empire and the Safavid dynasty of Persia, reflecting both strategic and religious rivalries between Sunni and Shia rulers. Babur briefly captured the city, but it ultimately fell under Safavid control. During this period, Kandahar's fortifications were rebuilt multiple times to withstand sieges, and the city functioned as a provincial administrative and military center.

In 1709, Mirwais Hotak successfully rebelled against the Safavids, founding the Hotak dynasty and establishing Kandahar as the political heart of a Pashtun-led empire. The Hotaki rulers consolidated local authority and defended the region against Persian encroachment. In 1738, Nader Shah of Persia defeated the last Hotaki ruler, Shah Hussain Hotak, briefly restoring Persian influence. Soon after, in 1747, Ahmad Shah Durrani established the Durrani Empire, often considered the foundation of modern Afghanistan, making Kandahar its initial capital. Under Durrani, the city was the seat of imperial administration, military organization, and tribal coordination, though the capital later moved to Kabul in the 1770s.

Afghan military commanders on 2 September 1880, about a month after their victory at the Battle of Maiwand

Throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, Kandahar was influenced by broader geopolitical struggles. The city was occupied temporarily by British-led forces during the First and Second Anglo-Afghan Wars (1832–1842 and 1878–1880), highlighting its strategic significance in the British-Russian Great Game. In the mid-20th century, Kandahar also became a commercial hub along trade routes leading to India and a notable stop for travelers, including participants in the Hippie trail, reflecting its continuing economic and cultural relevance.[8] Infrastructure, agriculture, and local governance expanded under various Afghan governments, though the city's growth remained constrained by periodic tribal conflicts and regional instability.

During war times (1979–2021)

[edit]

The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 marked the beginning of a prolonged period of armed conflict in Kandahar. During the Soviet–Afghan War, the province became a major center of mujahideen resistance, benefiting from its rugged terrain, tribal networks, and proximity to the Pakistan border, which allowed insurgent forces to operate effectively.[10] The city of Kandahar and its surrounding districts experienced significant destruction, population displacement, and disruptions to trade and agriculture. Following the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan in 1989, governance of the province was contested among local warlords, with Gul Agha Sherzai emerging as a prominent authority figure in the early 1990s, amid continuing instability and localized conflict.

In 1994, Kandahar became the birthplace of the Taliban movement, led by Mullah Omar, who sought to consolidate political authority and restore order following years of civil war. The city quickly became the movement's de facto capital, from which it extended control over much of southern and eventually all of Afghanistan.[11][12] Under Taliban rule, Kandahar experienced the imposition of strict Sharia law, limited political pluralism, and attempts—largely unsuccessful—to regulate the opium economy.

Operational Detachment Alpha 574 of the U.S. Army Special Forces alongside Hamid Karzai in the province in October 2001

Following the U.S.-led invasion of Afghanistan in 2001, prompted by the September 11 attacks, Kandahar fell to the Northern Alliance in December, ending Taliban governance in the province at that time.[13][14][15] The city then became a hub for international military operations, reconstruction, and counterinsurgency efforts, with arrested or suspected insurgents being transferred from the Kandahar detention center to the Guantanamo Bay naval base, while others detained by coalition forces were handed over to the Afghan intelligence service, the National Directorate of Security, where some reportedly faced torture during interrogation.[16][17]. Despite the establishment of local governance under figures such as Hamid Karzai, the province remained a stronghold of Taliban insurgency.[18][19] Throughout the 2000s and 2010s, Kandahar saw recurring attacks, targeted assassinations, and ongoing challenges to infrastructure, public services, and rural governance, making it a focal point of security and political concern in southern Afghanistan.[20][21][22]

Today (2021–)

[edit]

In 2021, as the United states withdrew from Afghanistan, a Taliban offensive advanced across the country, including Kandahar and other southern provinces.[11][23] On May 1, 2021, the U.S. completed its withdrawal from Kandahar, enabling the Taliban to capture surrounding districts and encircle the city.[24] The ensuing conflict displaced approximately 150,000 residents in the province.[11] Kandahar city fell to the Taliban on August 12, 2021, establishing their de facto control over the province. Since their return to power, the Taliban have implemented restrictions affecting education, employment, and public life, including bans on women and girls from participating in multiple institutions.[11][25] In 2023, the provincial office of the Taliban's spokesman was relocated from Kabul to Kandahar, further consolidating the role of the region as a regional administrative and political center.[11] The city maintains its symbolic status as a Pashtun heartland and a historic nexus of Afghan governance, commerce, and tribal authority.

Government and politics

[edit]
Further information: Politics of Afghanistan

Local governance

[edit]
Further information: List of governors of Kandahar

Kandahar's governance has historically been shaped by the interplay of tribal authority, central administration, and strategic geography. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, the province was governed through a mixture of tribal elders, local khans, and representatives of the Afghan monarchy, who exercised significant autonomy while recognizing formal sovereignty from Kabul. Early efforts by the Afghan state to consolidate power included the appointment of provincial governors and the establishment of administrative offices in Kandahar, aimed at centralizing decision-making and improving public services.

During periods of conflict from 1979 onwards—including the Soviet–Afghan War, the civil wars, and the Taliban's first regime—formal governance structures were frequently replaced or supplemented by local warlords and tribal leaders, who controlled security, taxation, and dispute resolution. After the U.S.-led invasion in 2001, provincial governance was restored through appointed officials, while traditional councils and community elders continued to exert influence over social and judicial matters, particularly in rural areas.

Since the Taliban regained control in 2021, the provincial administration operates under the framework of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. Governors and district officials are directly appointed by the central Taliban authorities, and formal political parties no longer participate in provincial governance. Nevertheless, tribal networks, religious leaders, and local councils continue to play a role in mediating disputes and influencing decisions at the community level.

As of December 2025, the governor of Kandahar is Mullah Shirin Akhund.[1]

Administrative divisions

[edit]
Districts of Kandahar

With the exception of a few districts, the district borders of Kandahar have been largely unchanged since 1914.[26] The province is divided into 18 districts, each managed by a district head responsible for local administration and coordination with the provincial government. The provincial capital, Kandahar, serves as the administrative, economic, and logistical hub for southern Afghanistan. Other key settlements include Arghandab, Panjwayi, Daman, Spin Boldak, and Shah Wali Kot. District centers are typically located along major roads, river valleys, or population clusters, reflecting both geographic accessibility and demographic patterns. Local administrations are tasked with civil registration, maintenance of basic law and order, and oversight of services such as education, healthcare, and infrastructure development.

Districts of Kandahar Province
District Capital Population[3] Area
in km2 		Pop.
density 		Number of villages and ethnic groups
Arghandab 70,016 606 116 79 villages. Pashtun
Arghistan 38,928 3,728 10 Pashtun[27]
Daman 39,193 4,179 9 Pashtun.[28]
Ghorak 10,895 1,742 6 Pashtun[29]
Kandahar Kandahar 632,601 114 5,539 Predominantly Pashtun, few Baloch, Tajik, Hazara, Uzbek.[30]
Khakrez 25,774 1,738 15 Pashtun[31]
Maruf 37,333 3,335 11 Pashtun[32]
Maiwand 66,297 2,963 22 160 villages. 95% Pashtun and 5% other.[33]
Miyanishin 17,006 803 21 Pashtun.[34] Used to be part of Shah Wali Kot District.
Nesh 15,146 1,110 14 Pashtun.[35] Used to belong to Uruzgan Province.
Panjwayi 98,448 5,841 17 Pashtun[30]
Reg 10,097 13,470 1 Baloch and Pashtun
Shah Wali Kot 49,025 3,345 15 Pashtun
Shorabak 13,020 4,153 3 Pashtun and Baloch
Spin Boldak 113,727 2,963 38 Pashtun
Takhta-pul 14,349 2,926 5 Pashtun
Zhari 96,987 745,1 130 Pashtun. Created out of Maiwand and Panjwayi District.
Dand 50,752 617 82 Pashtun
Kandahar 1,399,594 54,845 26 98.7% Pashtuns, 0.9% Balochi, 0.1% Tajiks, 0.1% Hazaras, 0.1% Uzbeks, 0.2% others.[note 1]
  1. ^ Note: "Predominantely" or "dominated" is interpreted as 99%, "majority" as 70%, "mixed" as 1/(number of ethnicities), "minority" as 30% and "few" or "some" as 1%.

Security

[edit]
Afghan National Security Forces in southern Kandahar (2012)

The province's security landscape has long been influenced by its strategic location and porous border with Pakistan. During the Islamic Republic era, the province was a central venue of counterinsurgency operations against the Taliban, hosting international military forces and Afghan National Security personnel. Since 2021, the Taliban maintain primary control over provincial security, with the city of Kandahar experiencing a comparatively stable environment, while rural districts remain vulnerable to localized unrest, criminal networks, and sporadic militant activity. The continued influence of tribal structures and local power brokers further shapes the implementation of law and order throughout the province.

Economy

[edit]
Further information: Transport in Afghanistan and Economy of Afghanistan

Agriculture

[edit]

Kandahar has been known for having well-irrigated gardens and orchards, and was famous for its grapes, melons, and pomegranates. The main source of trade is to Pakistan, Iran and other regional countries. Kandahar is an agricultural area and several of the districts are irrigated by the Helmand and Arghandab Valley Authority.[36] The Dahla Dam is located in the province, north of the city of Kandahar. There are approximately 700 greenhouses in the entire province but farmers want the government to build more.[37]

Transportation

[edit]
A Kam Air passenger plane at Kandahar International Airport in 2012

The Ahmad Shah Baba International Airport is located east of the city of Kandahar. It is for civilian and military use. It serves the population of southern Afghanistan by providing domestic flights to other cities and international flights to Dubai, Pakistan, Iran and other regional countries. The airport was built by the United States in the 1960s under the United States Agency for International Development program. It was later used by Soviet and Afghan forces during the 1980s and again during the 2001–2021 NATO-led war. The airport was upgraded and expanded during the last decade by the United States Army Corps of Engineers.

There is currently no rail service but reports indicate that at least one will be built between the city of Kandahar and the border town of Spin Boldak in the south, which will then connect with Pakistan Railways.[38][39][40][41][42][43][44] Ground transport of goods is carried by trucks and cars. A number of important roads run through the province and this helps the area's economy. The town of Spin Boldak serves as a major transporting, shipping, and receiving site. It is being developed so that trade with neighboring Pakistan increases.

Kandahar province has bus services to major towns and village headquarters. Its capital, Kandahar, used to have a city bus service that took commuters on daily routes to different destinations throughout the city. There are taxicabs that provide transportation service inside the city as well as throughout the province. Other traditional methods of ground transportation are also used. Private vehicles are on the rise in the country, with large showrooms selling new or second-hand vehicles imported from the United Arab Emirates. More people are buying new cars as the roads and highways are being improved.

Demographics

[edit]
Further information: Demographics of Afghanistan

Population

[edit]

According to the National Statistics and Information Authority (NSIA), the total population of the province was estimated at 1,431,876.[3]

Ethnicity, languages and religion

[edit]

Pashtuns make up the majority in province. There are also communities of Baloch people, Tajiks, Uzbeks, Turkmens, Hazaras and others.[45] The main language spoken throughout the province is Pashto.[2] Dari and Balochi is also understood by some, especially in the city of Kandahar where learning of Dari as a second language is promoted in public schools.[46]

The main tribes in the province are as follows:[47]

Health

[edit]
Further information: Health in Afghanistan and Healthcare in Afghanistan
The Kandahar Regional Military Hospital in 2007.

There are a number of hospitals in the province, most of them in the city of Kandahar. These include Aino Mina Hospital, Al Farhad Hospital, Ayoubi Hospital, Mirwais Hospital, Mohmand Hospital,[48] Sial Curative Hospital and Sidal Hospital.

Education

[edit]
Further information: List of universities in Afghanistan and List of schools in Afghanistan
A Kandahar University student sweeping the sidewalk in June 2012.

Kandahar University is one of the largest educational institutions in the province. It has over 5,000 students, about 300 of which are female students.[49] In partnership with the Asia Foundation, Kandahar University conducted a pilot project that provided female high school graduates with a four-month refresher course to prepare for the college entrance examination. The university is one of two universities in Kandahar that serve all of southern Afghanistan. The conditions in the university are poor but improving slowly. Kandahar University is far behind many of the other universities in the country because of insecurity and shortage of funding,

There are approximately 377 public and private schools in Kandahar province. The total number of students is 362,000. Of this, 79,000 are female students. Due to insecurity and other issues, many female students drop out before obtaining a diploma.[50] Almost 150 educational institutes were closed in the past, according to the education ministry. Some of the well known public schools in Kandahar are Ahmad Shah Baba High School, Mahmud Tarzi High School, Mirwais Hotak High School, Nazo Ana High School, Shah Mahmud Hotak High School, and Zarghuna Ana High School. Private schools include Afghan Turk High Schools.

Notable people from Kandahar Province

[edit]
Royalty and statesmen
Other politics, generals and administration
Culture
  • Abdul Bari Jahani – Poet, writer, author of the Afghan National Anthem
  • Abdul Hai Habibi- Poet, Writer, Historian, Founder and Developer of Academic Pashto era.
  • Faizullah Kakar - Afghan epidemiologist. Previous Chief of Staff to President Ashraf Ghani, the Afghan Ambassador to Qatar, the Adviser to president for Health and Education, and the Deputy Minister of Public Health for the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan.

See also

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Notes

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b [1]
  2. ^ a b "Name of the Province: Kandahar". English. Islamic Republic of Afghanistan: President. Retrieved 2021-02-04.
  3. ^ a b c "Estimated Population of Afghanistan 2022-23" (PDF) (in Pashto, Dari, and English). National Statistic and Information Authority Afghanistan. 2023. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2022-07-22. Retrieved 2025-12-02.
  4. ^ Singh, Upinder. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson Education India. p. 264.
  5. ^ "Alexander the Great: his towns – Alexandria in Arachosia". Livius.org. Archived from the original on 2010-06-15. Retrieved 2020-03-26.
  6. ^ "Livius Picture Archive: Shahbazgarhi - Pakistan". Archived from the original on 2004-06-30.
  7. ^ a b Dupree, Nancy Hatch (1970). An Historical Guide to Afghanistan. Vol. First Edition. Kabul: Afghan Air Authority, Afghan Tourist Organization. p. 492. Retrieved 2012-06-17.
  8. ^ a b Brooke, James (September 23, 2002). "Kandahar Journal; Cradle of Taliban Reverts to Cradle of Commerce". The New York Times. Retrieved March 18, 2024.
  9. ^ Afghanistan: a new history By Martin Ewans Edition: 2, illustrated Published by Routledge, 2002 Page 15 ISBN 0-415-29826-1, ISBN 978-0-415-29826-1
  10. ^ Bonner, Arthur (1986-07-06). "The Slow Motion War in Afghanistan". The New York Times. Retrieved 2024-03-18.
  11. ^ a b c d e "Afghanistan's Taliban move spokesman's office to Kandahar". Reuters. April 5, 2023. Retrieved March 17, 2024.
  12. ^ Harding, Luke (2002-02-17). "How Afghans turned against their spiritual chief". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2024-03-18.
  13. ^ "Afghanistan War | History, Combatants, Facts, & Timeline | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 2024-03-14. Retrieved 2024-03-18.
  14. ^ Gall, Carlotta (2010-03-27). "Kandahar, a Battlefield Even Before U.S. Offensive". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2021-11-22.
  15. ^ Knowlton, Brian (December 7, 2001). "Rumsfeld Rejects PlanTo Allow Mullah Omar 'To Live in Dignity' : Taliban Fighters Agree to Surrender Kandahar". The New York Times. Retrieved March 18, 2024.
  16. ^ Schmitt, Eric (2002-01-09). "A NATION CHALLENGED: THE DRAGNET; U.S. Forces Pursue Al Qaeda Leaders in Treacherous Terrain". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2024-03-18.
  17. ^ "From Canadian custody into cruel hands". The Globe and Mail. 2007-04-23. Retrieved 2024-03-18.
  18. ^ "Bomb kills six Canadian soldiers in Afghanistan". Reuters. August 9, 2007. Retrieved March 18, 2024.
  19. ^ "U.S., Afghan forces kill some 80 insurgents - U.S." Reuters. October 27, 2007. Retrieved March 18, 2024.
  20. ^ Alison, Jane (2010-04-01). "Most Dangerous, Most Unmerciful". VQR Online. Retrieved 2020-03-02.
  21. ^ "FRONTLINE/WORLD . Afghanistan - The Other War . Interview with Col. Tom Collins . PBS". www.pbs.org. Retrieved 2024-03-18.
  22. ^ "Bomb attack kills Afghan governor". 2006-09-10. Retrieved 2024-03-18.
  23. ^ Amiri, Ali M. Latifi,Abdul Matin. "'War all around': Kandahar residents fear Taliban advance on city". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 2024-03-18.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  24. ^ Nossiter, Adam (July 9, 2021). "Taliban Enter Kandahar City and Seize Border Posts". The New York Times. Retrieved March 17, 2024.
  25. ^ "Taliban official letter reinforces bar of female aid staff in southern Kandahar". Reuters. 23 June 2023. Retrieved June 23, 2023.
  26. ^ Adamec, Ludwig W.; Branch, India Army General Staff (1980). Historical and Political Gazetteer of Afghanistan, Vol. 5: Kandahar and South-Central Afghanistan. Graz: Akademische Druck- u. Verlagsanstalt. ISBN 978-3-201-01125-9.
  27. ^ "Arghistan District" (PDF). Archived from the original on 29 July 2013. Retrieved 2013-06-24.
  28. ^ "Daman District (Updated DDP)" (PDF). Archived from the original on 29 July 2013. Retrieved 2013-06-24.
  29. ^ "Ghorak District" (PDF). Archived from the original on 29 July 2013. Retrieved 2013-06-24.
  30. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference :0c was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  31. ^ "Khakriz District" (PDF). Archived from the original on 2013-07-29. Retrieved 2013-06-24.
  32. ^ "Maruf District" (PDF). Archived from the original on 29 July 2013. Retrieved 2013-06-24.
  33. ^ "Maiwand District" (PDF). Archived from the original on 29 July 2013. Retrieved 2013-06-24.
  34. ^ "Mianishin District" (PDF). Archived from the original on 29 July 2013. Retrieved 2013-06-24.
  35. ^ "Nish District" (PDF). Archived from the original on 29 July 2013. Retrieved 2013-06-24.
  36. ^ "The Helmand Valley Project in Afghanistan: A.I.D. Evaluation Special Study No. 18" (PDF). C. Clapp-Wicek & E. Baldwin, U.S. Agency for International Development. December 1983. Archived from the original on April 8, 2013.
  37. ^ "Kandahar farmers want construction of green houses resumed". Pajhwok Afghan News. June 19, 2022. Retrieved 2022-06-19.
  38. ^ "Pakistan to launch train service with Afghanistan". 5 December 2020.
  39. ^ Shah, S. Muddasir Ali (5 December 2020). "Pakistan plans Chaman-Spin Boldak rail link".
  40. ^ "Pakistan to build railway line between Chaman and Spin Boldak | Ariana News". Ariana News. 2020-12-05. Retrieved 2021-11-22.
  41. ^ "Pakistan to build railway line between Chaman and Spin Boldak". Archived from the original on 2021-01-16. Retrieved 2021-03-10.
  42. ^ "Minister announces Pak-Afghan train service". 4 December 2020.
  43. ^ "Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Pakistan ink map for rail link". www.aa.com.tr. Retrieved 2021-11-22.
  44. ^ "What's Behind the Planned Uzbekistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan Railway?".
  45. ^ "Kandahar Provincial Overview". Naval Postgraduate School (NPS). Retrieved 2021-02-18.
  46. ^ هنریار, ارشاد (2019-05-26). "فارسی زبان‌های قندهار؛ پیشتاز زرگری و رای‌گیری". BBC News فارسی (in Persian). Retrieved 2020-07-26.
  47. ^ "Welcome - Program for Culture and Conflict Studies - Naval Postgraduate School". www.nps.edu. Retrieved 2021-11-22.
  48. ^ "Mohmand Hospital Kandahar ,Mohmand Hospital Kandahar,Best hospital in Afghanistan,Kandahar Medical Complex ,Kandahar Hospital, Best Hospital In Kandhar". mohmandhospital.com. Retrieved 2021-11-22.
  49. ^ "Kandahar University Goes Solar". November 3, 2012. Archived from the original on February 18, 2013. Retrieved 2012-11-05.
  50. ^ "Number of girls graduated from Kandahar schools increases". TOLOnews. March 10, 2021. Retrieved 2021-03-10.

Further reading

[edit]
  • Vogelsang, W. (1985). Early historical Arachosia in South-east Afghanistan; Meeting-place between East and West.
  • Dupree, Louis. (1973) Afghanistan. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
  • Rashid, Ahmed. (2000) Taliban: Militant Islam, Oil, and Fundamentalism in Central Asia. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
[edit]
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